India’s security environment is dominated by its mistrust of Pakistan, with whom it has fought three wars in the past 40 years, as well as its competition for regional influence with China, with whom it fought a border war in 1962. A combination of high defense spending and considerable technical expertise has made India’s military-industrial base one of the most diversified in the developing world.
India began its Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) in 1983 with the aim of achieving self-sufficiency in missile development and production. The IGMDP’s offensive component includes Prithvi short-range and Agni intermediate-range ballistic missiles. There is also speculation about the existence on an intercontinental ballistic missile program known as the Surya. In addition, India is currently developing Dhanush sea-launched ballistic missiles and Brahmos cruise missiles.
Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missiles
India’s intermediate-range arsenal includes Agni-2 and Agni-3 missiles. The rail-mobile, solid- and liquid-propellant Agni-2 was developed to counter threats from both China and Pakistan, although sources indicate that its development was instigated by recent Chinese missile advances. The Agni-2 has a minimum range of 500 km and a maximum range of 3,000 km, and can be fitted with 150 or 200 kT yield nuclear warheads, in addition to chemical, high-explosive, and submunitions versions. The missile’s main strength is its relatively high accuracy, especially at close range, due to its combination of an internal guidance system, a Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) system, and radar correlation.[1]
Less is known about the Agni-3, although most agree that it will become India’s most advanced ballistic missile once operational. At present, it is believed to be a three-stage missile that essentially adds a third stage onto the first and second stages of the Agni-2. Sources differ as to its range, which is most likely between 4,000 and 6,000 km; at 5000 km it would be capable of striking Beijing. The Agni-3 will probably be deployed from either rail- or road-mobile launch vehicles. It will most likely be equipped with an inertial guidance systems with an improved optical or radar terminal phase correlation system. This would give it a high degree of accuracy with a medium to large nuclear payload, most likely a 200 or 300 kT warhead.[2] Although the Agni-3 has never been tested, reports indicate that India plans to launch the missile before the end of 2005.[3]
Short-Range Ballistic Missiles
India’s short-range arsenal includes the road-mobile, liquid-fuelled Prithvi-1, Prithvi-2, Prithvi-3, and Agni-1A missiles. The Prithvi-1 SRBM uses the basic propulsion technology from the Russian S-75 surface-to-air missile. It was first tested in February 1988 and became operational in 1994, used mainly by the Indian Army. With a range of 150 km, the Prithvi-1 can carry both conventional and nuclear warheads with a payload up to 1000 kg. Although its short range and low payload prevent it from being used against strategic targets, the missile’s high accuracy enables it to target enemy military targets effectively, making it a solid battlefield weapon.[4] Most recently, in May 2005 India tested the Prithvi-1 from its Chandipur-on-Sea integrated test range in the eastern state of Orissa.[5]
The Prithvi-2 is similar to the Prithvi-1 in many ways, except that it trades a smaller warhead for a longer range. Its range is approximately 250 km, but its payload can only weigh up to 500 kg, which is only half as much as the Prithvi-1. The missile can also be equipped with multiple payloads, to be dispensed by the missile during its flight. India first tested the Prithvi-2 in 1996, and sources indicate that it entered service with the Indian Air Force in 1999. However, the current status of the Prithvi-2 remains unclear.[6] In March 2004, in response to Pakistan’s test of Shaheen-2 nuclear capable missile, India test launched the Prithvi-2. India manufactures between 10 and 30 missiles each year for all versions of the Prithvi.[7]
A third version, the Prithvi-3, is currently at an advanced stage of development. It has a reported range of 350 km and is believed to carry a 750 kg warhead, either nuclear of conventional. It is rumored that the Prithvi-3 may use solid-fuelled propulsion, making it more stable and reliable than the liquid-fuelled versions. As the longest-ranged member of the Prithvi family of missiles, it is most likely designed for use as a tactical weapon against Pakistan and China. Reported to have been under development in 1994, the Prithvi-3 was rumored to have been terminated, although India conducted a test of the new system in October 2004.[8]
In addition to the Prithvi-class SRBMs, India has successfully tested a new missile known as the Agni-1A. It has a range of 860 km with a maximum payload of 2,000 kg, which can be equipped with a nuclear 20 kT yield warhead or conventional explosives. However, by cutting the payload in half the Agni-1A will most likely be able to extend its range to 1,200 km, which encompasses all of Pakistan. The extended-range version places the Agni-1A between the short-range and intermediate-range categories, thus filling the gap between India’s Prithvi and Agni families.[9]
Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles
At present, India’s Prithvi and Agni missiles can only hit a limited number of Chinese targets, even after the completion of the Agni-3. However, the deployment of a true ICBM would make almost any strategic target within China vulnerable, and decrease India’s relative weakness. For this reason, India is currently developing the Surya ICBM, which is based on civil space launch technologies from India’s Space Launch Vehicle program. Once completed, the Surya will extend India’s nuclear deterrent to targets deep within China and will thus provide India with a strong deterrent against future Chinese aggression.
India is developing two variants, the Surya-1 and the Surya-2. The Surya-1 is reported to be 40 m long and weigh 80,000 kg. It is expected to have a range of 8,000 km. The missile is believed to use a three-stage design, with one liquid-propellant and two solid-propellant stages. As the Surya-1 has yet to be developed, its payload and warhead are currently unknown. The Surya-2 will have a longer range of 12,000 km, which will most likely be accomplished by decreasing its payload. The first test flight of the Surya-1 is expected in 2005 and the missile is expected to enter service in 2008.[10]
Sea-Launched Ballistic Missiles and Cruise Missiles
In 2004, India adopted a new military doctrine aimed at the acquisition of blue water ballistic missile submarines, most likely to counterbalance China’s military expansion. During the first stage of this new doctrine, India plans to lease a Russian Akula-class submarine, although it plans to develop its own submarines in the future. The specific type of a missile carried by these submarines was not specified, although India has been developing the Dhanush sea-launched missile.[11] Thought to be a variant of the Prithvi-2, the Dhanush uses a single-stage, liquid-propellant engine, giving it a maximum range of 250 km. Its payload is a single warhead weighing up to 500 kg, only half as much as the Prithvi-1.[12]
In addition to the Dhanush, India is currently developing a supersonic cruise missile known as the Brahmos. The project, which began in 1998, is a joint effort of the Indian Defense Ministry’s Defense Research and Development Organization and Russia’s Mashinostroyeniye Company. The Brahmos can be launched from ships and submarines, and is believed to have a range of 290 kilometers. It carries a conventional warhead and can fly to a height of 14 km at twice the speed of sound. Reports indicate that testing has been completed, and production has started in India and Russia. The initial batch of Brahmos missiles will number approximately 70.[13]
[1] Duncan Lennox, ed., Jane’s Strategic Weapons Systems 42 (Surrey: Jane’s Information Group, January 2005), 82-84; GlobalSecurity.org, “India Missile Special Weapons Delivery Systems,” available at
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/india/agni.htm, accessed on 19 May 2005.
[2] Lennox (2005), 82-84.
[3]
Jane's Defence Weekly, 31 May 2005.
[4] Lennox (2005), 85-87.
[5]
Agence France Presse, 12 May 2005.
[6] Lennox (2005), 85-87.
[7]
London Guardian, 19 March 2004.
[8] Lennox (2005), 85-87; “India Tests Prithvi III and Dhanush,” Jane’s Missiles and Rockets, 1 December 2004.
[9] Lennox (2005), 82-84.
[10] Duncan Lennox, ed., Jane’s Strategic Weapons Systems 41 (Surrey: Jane’s Information Group, July 2004), 6; GlobalSecurity.org, “Surya,” available at
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/india/surya.htm, accessed on 21 May 2005.
[11]
Defense News, 7 June 2004.
[12] Lennox (2005), 85-87; Andrew Koch, “India Moves Closer to Sea-launched Ballistic Missile,” Jane’s
Defence Weekly, 10 November 2004.
[13]
Agence France-Presse, 3 November 2004; Interfax, 6 July 2005.
